Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)
Updated: January 24, 2022
- This topic focuses on treatment of COVID-19 by healthcare providers.
- For additional topics see:
Table of Contents | COVID-19 Vaccines | What’s New in the COVID-19 Outbreak
What’s New
[January 19, 2022]
Therapies for High-Risk, Nonhospitalized Patients With Mild to Moderate COVID-19
For nonhospitalized patients with mild to moderate COVID-19 who are at high risk of disease progression NIH Covid-19 Guideline Panel[1]recommends using 1 of the following therapeutics (listed in order of preference):
- Nirmatrelvir 300 mg with ritonavir 100 mg (Paxlovid) orally twice daily for 5 days, initiated as soon as possible and within 5 days of symptom onset in those aged ≥12 years and weighing ≥40 kg (AIIa).
- Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) has significant and complex drug-drug interactions, primarily due to the ritonavir component of the combination.
- Before prescribing ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid), clinicians should carefully review the patient’s concomitant medications, including over-the-counter medications and herbal supplements, to evaluate potential drug-drug interactions. See the Panel’s statement on the drug-drug interactions for ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) for details.
- Sotrovimab 500 mg as a single IV infusion, administered as soon as possible and within 10 days of symptom onset in those aged ≥12 years and weighing ≥40 kg (AIIa).
- Because Omicron has become the dominant VOC in the United States and real-time testing to identify rare, non-Omicron variants is not routinely available, the Panel recommends against using bamlanivimab plus etesevimab or casirivimab plus imdevimab (AIIa).
- Sotrovimab should be administered in a setting where severe hypersensitivity reactions, such as anaphylaxis, can be managed. Patients should be monitored during the infusion and observed for at least 1 hour after infusion.
- Remdesivir 200 mg IV on Day 1, followed by remdesivir 100 mg IV daily on Days 2 and 3, initiated as soon as possible and within 7 days of symptom onset in those aged ≥12 years and weighing ≥40 kg (BIIa).
- Because remdesivir requires IV infusion for 3 consecutive days, there may be logistical constraints to administering remdesivir in many settings.
- Remdesivir is currently approved by the FDA for use in hospitalized individuals; therefore, outpatient treatment would be an off-label indication.
- Remdesivir should be administered in a setting where severe hypersensitivity reactions, such as anaphylaxis, can be managed. Patients should be monitored during the infusion and observed for at least 1 hour after infusion.
- Molnupiravir 800 mg orally twice daily for 5 days, initiated as soon as possible and within 5 days of symptom onset in those aged ≥18 years ONLY when none of the above options can be used (CIIa).
- The FDA EUA states that molnupiravir is not recommended for use in pregnant patients due to concerns about the instances of fetal toxicity observed during animal studies. However, when other therapies are not available, pregnant people with COVID-19 who are at high risk of progressing to severe disease may reasonably choose molnupiravir therapy after being fully informed of the risks, particularly those who are beyond the time of embryogenesis (i.e., >10 weeks’ gestation). The prescribing clinician should document that a discussion of the risks and benefits occurred and that the patient chose this therapy.
- There are no data on the use of molnupiravir in patients who have received COVID-19 vaccines, and the risk-to-benefit ratio is likely to be less favorable because of the lower efficacy of this drug.
- Detailed statement
[January 5, 2022]
Tixagevimab Plus Cilgavimab (Evusheld) for Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis in Specific Groups
The NIH Covid-19 Guideline Panel[1] recommends using tixagevimab plus cilgavimab as SARS-CoV-2 PrEP for adults and adolescents (aged ≥12 years and weighing ≥40 kg) who do not have SARS-CoV-2 infection, who have not been recently exposed to an individual with SARS-CoV-2 infection, AND who:
- Are moderately to severely immunocompromised and may have an inadequate immune response to COVID-19 vaccination (BIIa); or
- Are not able to be fully vaccinated with any available COVID-19 vaccines due to a documented history of severe reactions to a COVID-19 vaccine or any of its components (AIIa).
- Detailed statement
Anticoagulation in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19
- Several randomized controlled trials have evaluated the role of therapeutic doses of heparin in reducing venous thromboembolism or mortality in patients hospitalized for COVID-19.
- The NIH Panel recommendations recommendations on the use of anticoagulation therapy in hospitalized, nonpregnant adults with COVID-19 who are receiving supplemental oxygen, presented according to whether the patient is receiving intensive care unit level of care.
Patient Prioritization for Treatment
Priorities for anti-SARS-CoV-2 mAb therapy based on 4 key elements: age, vaccination status, immune status, and clinical risk factors. The groups are listed by tier in descending order of priority.[1]
1 |
|
2 |
|
3 |
|
4 |
|
COVID-19 History
- In late 2019, a new coronavirus – not seen previously in humans – was identified as the cause of human illness in Wuhan, China and given the name "novel coronavirus" (2019-nCoV).
- By late January 2020, the outbreak was declared a public health emergency of international concern by WHO and US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).[2],[3]
- By mid February 2020, the virus was renamed Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) and the disease it causes was named COVID-19.[4]
- in March 2020, the outbreak was categorized as a pandemic by WHO.[5]
Epidemiology
- Spread by human-to-human transmission via respiratory droplets or fomites.
- Median incubation period from exposure to symptoms onset is 4–5 days; ~97% develop symptoms within 12 days from SARS-CoV-2 infection.[6]
- Individuals of all ages are at risk for SARS-CoV-2 infection and severe disease. However, the probability of serious COVID-19 disease is higher in people aged ≥60 years, those living in a nursing home or long-term care facility, and those with chronic medical conditions.
- Spectrum of illness can range from asymptomatic infection to severe pneumonia with acute respiratory distress syndrome and death.
Drug Treatment
General recommendations
- The NIH COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel recommends the following strategies for managing patients with different severities of disease.[1]
- Details on each therapeutic agent can be found below this section.
- Clarification that the recommendation for using remdesivir without dexamethasone applies to patients who are early in their disease course and who require minimal supplemental oxygen.
- Rating for the recommendation on using dexamethasone plus remdesivir has been changed from BIII to BIIb based on data from observational studies.
- A new recommendation has been added: For patients on dexamethasone who have rapidly increasing oxygen needs and systemic inflammation, add a second immunomodulatory drug (e.g., baricitinib, tocilizumab) (CIIa).
Remdesivir | RDV 200 mg IV once, then RDV 100 mg IV once daily for 4 days or until hospital discharge. |
|
Dexamethasone | DEX 6 mg IV or PO once daily for up to 10 days or until hospital discharge. |
|
Baricitinib | Baricitinib dose is dependent on eGFR; duration of therapy is up to 14 days or until hospital discharge. |
|
Tofacitinib | Tofacitinib 10 mg PO twice daily for up to 14 days or until hospital discharge. |
|
Tocilizumab | Tocilizumab 8 mg/kg actual body weight (up to 800 mg) administered as a single IV dose. |
|
Sarilumab | Use the single-dose, prefilled syringe (not the prefilled pen) for SQ injection. Reconstitute sarilumab 400 mg in 100 cc 0.9% NaCl and administer as an IV infusion over 1 hour. |
|
Key: DEX = dexamethasone; eGFR = estimated glomerular filtration rate; IV = intravenous; PO = oral; RDV = remdesivir; SQ = subcutaneous |
Strength of Recommendation | Quality of Evidence for Recommendation |
|
|
Overview
- Care is primarily supportive (see Supportive Therapy below)
- FDA-approved therapies
- Remdesivir [October 22, 2020] – recommended for hospitalized patients who require supplemental oxygen. See below for details.
- Additional therapies recommended by NIH Guidelines Panel
- Dexamethasone – for hospitalized patients only; see below for details
- Baricitinib or tocilizumab: for certain hospitalized patients who require high-flow oxygen or non-invasive ventilation. If neither agent is available or feasible, tofacitinib can be substituted for baricitinib and sarilumab can be substituted for tocilizumab.
- Anti-SARS-CoV-2 monoclonal antibodies: for outpatients with mild to moderate COVID-19 who are at high risk of clinical progression, as defined by the EUA criteria
- Bamlanivimab plus etesevimab; or
- Casirivimab plus imdevimab; or
- Sotrovimab [preferred for regions where the Omicron variant is dominant]
- Therapies NOT approved nor recommended except in a clinical trial
- Hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine with or without azithromycin
- Lopinavir/ritonavir or other HIV protease inhibitors
- Ivermectin
- Anti-IL-6 monoclonal antibody (siltuximab)
- Interferons
- Bruton’s tyrosine kinase inhibitors (e.g., acalabrutinib, ibrutinib, zanubrutinib)
- Other Janus kinase inhibitors (e.g., ruxolitinib)
- Many other treatments are being investigated in clinical trials
Remdesivir (Gilead)
- On October 22, 2020 the U.S. FDA:
- Approved remdesivir (Veklury®) for adults and pediatric patients (12 years and older and weighing at least 40 kg) for the treatment of COVID-19 requiring hospitalization. Under its approval, Veklury should only be administered in a hospital or in a healthcare setting capable of providing acute care comparable to inpatient hospital care.[7]
- Authorized continued emergency use to treat suspected or laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 in hospitalized pediatric patients weighing 3.5 kg to less than 40 kg or hospitalized pediatric patients less than 12 years of age weighing at least 3.5 kg.
For Hospitalized Adult and Pediatric Patients (Aged ≥12 Years and Weighing ≥40 kg)
Suggested Dose in EUAa for Hospitalized Pediatric Patients Weighing 3.5 kg to < 40 kg or Aged < 12 Years and Weighing ≥3.5 kg
Not Recommended
|
aThe FDA EUA permits the emergency use of RDV for the treatment of suspected COVID-19 or laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection in hospitalized pediatric patients weighing 3.5 kg to < 40 kg or aged < 12 years and weighing ≥3.5 kg. ALT = alanine transaminase; ECMO = extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; eGFR = estimated glomerular filtration rate; EUA = Emergency Use Authorization; FDA = Food and Drug Administration; |
Remdesivir Research Studies
- Broad antiviral activity including against SARS-CoV-2 in vitro.[8]
- Preliminary results of an NIH-sponsored clinical trial (ACTT; NCT04280705) published in NEJM showed remdesivir accelerated recovery from advanced COVID-19.[9]
Remdesivir | Placebo | Significance | |
Median Time to Recovery (Days) | 11 | 15 | p< 0.001 |
Mortality | 8.0% | 11.6% | p=0.059 |
†Preliminary Results from Adaptive COVID-19 Treatment Trial (ACTT).[9] |
- NEJM study in patients with severe COVID-19 not requiring mechanical ventilation did not show a significant difference between a 5-day and 10-day course of remdesivir. With no placebo control, the magnitude of benefit of treatment could not be determined.[10]
- The Lancet reported on a RCT (ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04257656) at ten hospitals in Hubei, China. Remdesivir was not associated with statistically significant clinical benefits, although some authors have concluded that the study was underpowered to detect a statistical difference.
- NEJM study of compassionate-use remdesivir in severe COVID-19 showed clinical improvement in 36 of 53 patients (68%). However, no conclusion about true efficacy could be made from this small and non-controlled study.[11]
- Many additional clinical trials are underway.
Dexamethasone (Corticosteroids)
NIH COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel[1]
|
Additional Considerations
|
Dexamethasone Research Studies
- Preliminary results from the UK RECOVERY trial published in NEJM showed Dexamethasone 6 mg once daily, taken orally or by injection for 10 days reduced the 28 day mortality rate by 17% (0.83 (0.74 to 0.92); P=0.0007) with the greatest benefit among patients needing ventilation (see table below).
Respiratory Support | Dexamethasone % mortality | Usual Care % mortality | Rate Ratio |
Invasive mechanical ventilation | 29.3 | 41.4 | 0.64 (0.51 to 0.81) |
Oxygen only | 23.3 | 26.2 | 0.82 (0.72 to 0.94) |
No oxygen received | 17.8 | 14.0 | 1.19 (0.91 to 1.55) |
†Dexamethasone in Hospitalized Patients with Covid-19 — Preliminary Report.[12] CI = Confidence Interval |
Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Monoclonal Antibodies
NIH COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel[1]
|
Blood-Derived Products
NIH COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel[1]
|
Convalescent Plasma Research Studies
- PNAS: In an uncontrolled case series of 10 adult patients with severe COVID-19 who were given one dose of convalescent plasma with the neutralizing antibody titers above 1:640, clinical symptoms significantly improved with an increase of oxyhemoglobin saturation within 3 d, accompanied by rapid neutralization of viremia.[13]
- JAMA: In an uncontrolled case series of 5 critically ill patients with COVID-19 and ARDS, administration of convalescent plasma containing neutralizing antibody was followed by improvement in clinical status.[14]
- U.S. FDA has provided guidance for the use of COVID-19 convalescent plasma under an Emergency Investigational New Drug Application
- Other Convalescent Plasma Clinical Trials are underway.
Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) and Chloroquine (CQ)
NIH COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel[1]
|
Hydroxychloroquine Research Studies
- Inhibits growth of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro,[15] but no clinical trials have demonstrated conclusively their effectiveness in humans.
- NEJM article reported that HCQ, alone or with azithromycin, did not improve clinical status in patients hospitalized with mild-moderate COVID-19 at 15 days as compared with standard care.[16]
- Annals of Internal Medicine reported on randomized trial of of 491 patients where HCQ given to nonhosptialized adults with early COVID-19 did not substantially reduce symptom severity or improve outcomes
- UK RECOVERY trial: HCQ treatment arm stopped after preliminary analysis showed HCQ did not reduce mortality or improve other outcomes in hospitalized COVID-19 patients.[17]
- NEJM reported a randomized trial showing HCQ did not prevent COVID-19 infection when used as postexposure prophylaxis within 4 days after exposure.[18]
- Observational study published in JAMA showed amongst 1,438 hospitalized COVID-19 patients those receiving hydroxychloroquine, azithromycin, or both had no significant differences in mortality.[19]
- Observational study published in NEJM showed HCQ not associated with either a greatly lowered or an increased risk of the composite end point of intubation or death.[20]
- An increasing number of studies have reported clinically significant QT Interval prolongation from CQ/HCQ +/- azithromycin[19], with some authors cautioning "first, do no harm."[21]
Other Antiviral Drugs
NIH COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel[1]
|
Lopinavir-ritonavir (AbbVie; Kaletra, Aluvia)
- Showed "no benefit" in hospitalized adult patients with severe COVID-19 according to a study published in the New England of Journal of Medicine.[22]
- Many other trials are underway, see Lopinavir-Ritonavir Clinical Trials.
Other Immunomodulators
NIH COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel[1]
|
Supportive therapy and monitoring
Mild to Moderate Disease
- Patients with a mild clinical presentation (absence of viral pneumonia and hypoxia) can often manage their illness at home.
- Outpatient or inpatient monitoring may be required, depending on:
- Clinical presentation, need for supportive care, risk factors for severe disease, and the ability to self-isolate at home.
- Risk factors for severe illness: these patients should be monitored closely given the possible risk of progression to severe illness in the second week after symptom onset.
Severe Disease
- Inpatient management of COVID-19 is supportive and focused on the mmanagement of complications (see below). For details see NEJM review of treatment of severe COVID-19.[23]
|
- WHO and the Surviving Sepsis Campaign have produced guidelines for inpatient and ICU management of patients with COVID-19:
- For management of children with COVID-19:
See Also
For health professionals
- Coronavirus COVID-19 Outbreak | What’s New
- Reporting COVID-19 in the United States
- Epidemic (Epi) Curves for Coronavirus COVID-19
- Specimen Collection and Testing for Coronavirus COVID-19
- PubMed Searches for Coronavirus COVID-19
- VIDEO | Coronavirus: What Nurses Need to Know
For the Public
References
- COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Treatment Guidelines. National Institutes of Health. Available at https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/. Updated: January 5, 2022.
- Statement on the second meeting of the International Health Regulations (2005) Emergency Committee regarding the outbreak of novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV). World Health Organization. 30 January 2020. [https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/30-01-2020-statement-on-the-second-me...]
- Determination that a Public Health Emergency Exists. US Department of Health and Human Services. 31 January 2020. [https://www.phe.gov/emergency/news/healthactions/phe/Pages/2019-nCoV.aspx]
- World Health Organization (WHO) Novel Coronavirus(2019-nCoV) Situation Report – 22. February 11, 2020. [https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/202...]
- WHO Director-General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19. World Health Organization. 11 March 2020. [https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-rema...]
- Lauer SA, Grantz KH, Bi Q, et al. The Incubation Period of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) From Publicly Reported Confirmed Cases: Estimation and Application. Ann Intern Med. 2020. [PMID:32150748]
- FDA-Approved Drugs: Remdesivir. Drugs@FDA. Accessed October 22, 2020. [https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm...]
- Choy KT, Yin-Lam Wong A, Kaewpreedee P, et al. Remdesivir, lopinavir, emetine, and homoharringtonine inhibit SARS-CoV-2 replication in vitro. Antiviral Res. 2020. [PMID:32251767]
- Beigel JH, Tomashek KM, Dodd LE, et al. Remdesivir for the Treatment of Covid-19 - Preliminary Report. N Engl J Med. 2020. [PMID:32445440]
- Goldman JD, Lye DCB, Hui DS, et al. Remdesivir for 5 or 10 Days in Patients with Severe Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020. [PMID:32459919]
- Grein J, Ohmagari N, Shin D, et al. Compassionate Use of Remdesivir for Patients with Severe Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020. [PMID:32275812]
- RECOVERY Collaborative Group, Horby P, Lim WS, et al. Dexamethasone in Hospitalized Patients with Covid-19 - Preliminary Report. N Engl J Med. 2020. [PMID:32678530]
- Duan K, Liu B, Li C, et al. Effectiveness of convalescent plasma therapy in severe COVID-19 patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020;117(17):9490-9496. [PMID:32253318]
- Shen C, Wang Z, Zhao F, et al. Treatment of 5 Critically Ill Patients With COVID-19 With Convalescent Plasma. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32219428]
- Yao X, Ye F, Zhang M, et al. In Vitro Antiviral Activity and Projection of Optimized Dosing Design of Hydroxychloroquine for the Treatment of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Clin Infect Dis. 2020. [PMID:32150618]
- Cavalcanti AB et al. Hydroxychloroquine with or without Azithromycin in Mild-to-Moderate Covid-19. N Engl J Med. July 23, 2020 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2019014
- Skipper CP, Pastick KA, Engen NW, et al. Hydroxychloroquine in Nonhospitalized Adults With Early COVID-19: A Randomized Trial. Ann Intern Med. 2020. [PMID:32673060]
- Boulware DR, Pullen MF, Bangdiwala AS, et al. A Randomized Trial of Hydroxychloroquine as Postexposure Prophylaxis for Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020. [PMID:32492293]
- Mercuro NJ, Yen CF, Shim DJ, et al. Risk of QT Interval Prolongation Associated With Use of Hydroxychloroquine With or Without Concomitant Azithromycin Among Hospitalized Patients Testing Positive for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). JAMA Cardiol. 2020. [PMID:32356863]
- Geleris J, Sun Y, Platt J, et al. Observational Study of Hydroxychloroquine in Hospitalized Patients with Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020. [PMID:32379955]
- DeJong C, Wachter RM. The Risks of Prescribing Hydroxychloroquine for Treatment of COVID-19-First, Do No Harm. JAMA Intern Med. 2020. [PMID:32347894]
- Cao B, Wang Y, Wen D, et al. A Trial of Lopinavir-Ritonavir in Adults Hospitalized with Severe Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020. [PMID:32187464]
- Berlin DA, Gulick RM, Martinez FJ. Severe Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020. [PMID:32412710]
- A Multicenter, Adaptive, Randomized Blinded Controlled Trial of the Safety and Efficacy of Investigational Therapeutics for the Treatment of COVID-19 in Hospitalized Adults. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04280705. [https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04280705]
- ACR Recommendations for the use of Chest Radiography and Computed Tomography (CT) for Suspected COVID-19 Infection. Updated March 22. [https://www.acr.org/Advocacy-and-Economics/ACR-Position-Statements/Recomme...]
- ACTIV-3/TICO LY-CoV555 Study Group, Lundgren JD, Grund B, et al. A Neutralizing Monoclonal Antibody for Hospitalized Patients with Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(10):905-914. [PMID:33356051]
- ARDS Definition Task Force, Ranieri VM, Rubenfeld GD, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: the Berlin Definition. JAMA. 2012;307(23):2526-33. [PMID:22797452]
- About new coronavirus infectious disease confirmed in cruise ship during quarantine in Yokohama Port, Japan Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare. 27 February 2020. [https://www.mhlw.go.jp/stf/newpage_09783.html]
- Advice on the use of masks in the community, during home care and in health care settings in the context of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) outbreak. World Health Organization. Updated 28 January 2020
- Ai T, Yang Z, Hou H, et al. Correlation of Chest CT and RT-PCR Testing in Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in China: A Report of 1014 Cases. Radiology. 2020. [PMID:32101510]
- Alhazzani W, Møller MH, Arabi YM, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: guidelines on the management of critically ill adults with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Intensive Care Med. 2020;46(5):854-887. [PMID:32222812]
- Alshahrani MS, Sindi A, Alshamsi F, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Ann Intensive Care. 2018;8(1):3. [PMID:29330690]
- Alzghari SK, Acuña VS. Supportive Treatment with Tocilizumab for COVID-19: A Systematic Review. J Clin Virol. 2020;127:104380. [PMID:32353761]
- Angus DC, Berry S, Lewis RJ, et al. The REMAP-CAP (Randomized Embedded Multifactorial Adaptive Platform for Community-acquired Pneumonia) Study. Rationale and Design. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2020;17(7):879-891. [PMID:32267771]
- Arabi YM, Mandourah Y, Al-Hameed F, et al. Corticosteroid Therapy for Critically Ill Patients with Middle East Respiratory Syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2018;197(6):757-767. [PMID:29161116]
- Arabi YM, Arifi AA, Balkhy HH, et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection. Ann Intern Med. 2014;160(6):389-97. [PMID:24474051]
- Arentz M, Yim E, Klaff L, et al. Characteristics and Outcomes of 21 Critically Ill Patients With COVID-19 in Washington State. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32191259]
- Backer JA, Klinkenberg D, Wallinga J. Incubation period of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) infections among travellers from Wuhan, China, 20-28 January 2020. Euro Surveill. 2020;25(5). [PMID:32046819]
- Bai HX, Hsieh B, Xiong Z, et al. Performance of radiologists in differentiating COVID-19 from viral pneumonia on chest CT. Radiology. 2020. [PMID:32155105]
- Bai Y, Yao L, Wei T, et al. Presumed Asymptomatic Carrier Transmission of COVID-19. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32083643]
- Bernheim A, Mei X, Huang M, et al. Chest CT Findings in Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19): Relationship to Duration of Infection. Radiology. 2020. [PMID:32077789]
- Bourouiba L. Turbulent Gas Clouds and Respiratory Pathogen Emissions: Potential Implications for Reducing Transmission of COVID-19. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32215590]
- Briel M, Meade M, Mercat A, et al. Higher vs lower positive end-expiratory pressure in patients with acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2010;303(9):865-73. [PMID:20197533]
- Brouwer PJM, Caniels TG, van der Straten K, et al. Potent neutralizing antibodies from COVID-19 patients define multiple targets of vulnerability. Science. 2020. [PMID:32540902]
- CDC COVID-19 Response Team. Severe Outcomes Among Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) - United States, February 12-March 16, 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69(12):343-346. [PMID:32214079]
- Cai J, Xu J, Lin D, et al. A Case Series of children with 2019 novel coronavirus infection: clinical and epidemiological features. Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2020.
- Chan JF, Yuan S, Kok KH, et al. A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster. Lancet. 2020. [PMID:31986261]
- Chandrashekar A, Liu J, Martinot AJ, et al. SARS-CoV-2 infection protects against rechallenge in rhesus macaques. Science. 2020. [PMID:32434946]
- Chen H, Guo J, Wang C, et al. Clinical characteristics and intrauterine vertical transmission potential of COVID-19 infection in nine pregnant women: a retrospective review of medical records. Lancet. 2020;395(10226):809-815. [PMID:32151335]
- Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):507-513. [PMID:32007143]
- Chen W, Lan Y, Yuan X, et al. Detectable 2019-nCoV viral RNA in blood is a strong indicator for the further clinical severity. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020;9(1):469-473. [PMID:32102625]
- Chen YT, Shao SC, Hsu CK, et al. Incidence of acute kidney injury in COVID-19 infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care. 2020;24(1):346. [PMID:32546191]
- Cheng HY, Jian SW, Liu DP, et al. Contact Tracing Assessment of COVID-19 Transmission Dynamics in Taiwan and Risk at Different Exposure Periods Before and After Symptom Onset. JAMA Intern Med. 2020. [PMID:32356867]
- Chia PY, Coleman KK, Tan YK, et al. Detection of air and surface contamination by SARS-CoV-2 in hospital rooms of infected patients. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):2800. [PMID:32472043]
- Chu DK, Akl EA, Duda S, et al. Physical distancing, face masks, and eye protection to prevent person-to-person transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2020. [PMID:32497510]
- Clinical management of severe acute respiratory infection when novel coronavirus (nCoV) infection is suspected. World Health Organization. Updated 28 January 2020. [https://www.who.int/publications-detail/clinical-management-of-severe-acute-respiratory-infection-when-novel-coronavirus-(ncov)-infection-is-suspected]
- Cohen MS, Nirula A, Mulligan MJ, et al. Effect of Bamlanivimab vs Placebo on Incidence of COVID-19 Among Residents and Staff of Skilled Nursing and Assisted Living Facilities: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2021;326(1):46-55. [PMID:34081073]
- Combes A, Hajage D, Capellier G, et al. Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation for Severe Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(21):1965-1975. [PMID:29791822]
- Combes A, Brodie D, Bartlett R, et al. Position paper for the organization of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation programs for acute respiratory failure in adult patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;190(5):488-96. [PMID:25062496]
- Corman VM, Albarrak AM, Omrani AS, et al. Viral Shedding and Antibody Response in 37 Patients With Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Infection. Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2016;62(4):477-483.
- Coronavirus (COVID-19) Update: FDA Authorizes First Oral Antiviral for Treatment of COVID-19. FDA News. December 22, 2021. [https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/coronavirus-covid-19-u...]
- Coronavirus (COVID-19) Update: FDA Continues to Facilitate Development of Treatments [News]. March 19, 2020. [https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/coronavirus-covid-19-u...]
- Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Situation Reports. World Health Organization. [https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/situation-...]
- Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. [https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/cases-in-us.html]
- Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) technical guidance: Laboratory testing for 2019-nCoV in humans. World Health Organization. Accessed February 29, 2020. [https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-...]
- Criteria to Guide Evaluation of PUI for COVID-19. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revised February 27, 2020. [https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/clinical-criteria.html]
- Dashraath P, Wong JLJ, Lim MXK, et al. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2020;222(6):521-531. [PMID:32217113]
- Davis AL, Carcillo JA, Aneja RK, et al. American College of Critical Care Medicine Clinical Practice Parameters for Hemodynamic Support of Pediatric and Neonatal Septic Shock. Crit Care Med. 2017;45(6):1061-1093. [PMID:28509730]
- Delaney JW, Pinto R, Long J, et al. The influence of corticosteroid treatment on the outcome of influenza A(H1N1pdm09)-related critical illness. Crit Care. 2016;20:75. [PMID:27036638]
- Detsky ME, Jivraj N, Adhikari NK, et al. Will This Patient Be Difficult to Intubate?: The Rational Clinical Examination Systematic Review. JAMA. 2019;321(5):493-503. [PMID:30721300]
- Ding Q, Lu P, Fan Y, Xia Y, Liu M. The clinical characteristics of pneumonia patients co-infected with 2019 novel coronavirus and influenza virus in Wuhan, China. Journal of medical virology. 2020.
- Docherty AB, Harrison EM, Green CA, et al. Features of 20 133 UK patients in hospital with covid-19 using the ISARIC WHO Clinical Characterisation Protocol: prospective observational cohort study. BMJ. 2020;369:m1985. [PMID:32444460]
- Dong E, Du H, Gardner L. An interactive web-based dashboard to track COVID-19 in real time. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020. [PMID:32087114]
- Dong Y, Mo X, Hu Y, et al. Epidemiological Characteristics of 2143 Pediatric Patients With 2019 Coronavirus Disease in China. Pediatrics. 2020. [PMID:32179660]
- EUA Authorized Serology Test Performance. U.S. Food & Drug Administration(FDA). [https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/emergency-situations-medical-devices/e...]
- Fan E, Del Sorbo L, Goligher EC, et al. An Official American Thoracic Society/European Society of Intensive Care Medicine/Society of Critical Care Medicine Clinical Practice Guideline: Mechanical Ventilation in Adult Patients with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017;195(9):1253-1263. [PMID:28459336]
- Fang L, Karakiulakis G, Roth M. Are patients with hypertension and diabetes mellitus at increased risk for COVID-19 infection? Lancet Respir Med. 2020. [PMID:32171062]
- Flaxman S, Mishra S, Gandy A, et al. Estimating the effects of non-pharmaceutical interventions on COVID-19 in Europe. Nature. 2020. [PMID:32512579]
- Fosbøl EL, Butt JH, Østergaard L, et al. Association of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitor or Angiotensin Receptor Blocker Use With COVID-19 Diagnosis and Mortality. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32558877]
- Ganyani T, Kremer C, Chen D, et al. Estimating the generation interval for coronavirus disease (COVID-19) based on symptom onset data, March 2020. Euro Surveill. 2020;25(17). [PMID:32372755]
- Gao J, Tian Z, Yang X. Breakthrough: Chloroquine phosphate has shown apparent efficacy in treatment of COVID-19 associated pneumonia in clinical studies. Biosci Trends. 2020. [PMID:32074550]
- Gao Q, Bao L, Mao H, et al. Rapid development of an inactivated vaccine candidate for SARS-CoV-2. Science. 2020. [PMID:32376603]
- Garg S, Kim L, Whitaker M, et al. Hospitalization Rates and Characteristics of Patients Hospitalized with Laboratory-Confirmed Coronavirus Disease 2019 - COVID-NET, 14 States, March 1-30, 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69(15):458-464. [PMID:32298251]
- Global Surveillance for human infection with coronavirus disease (COVID-19). World Health Organization. Updated 20 March 2020. [https://www.who.int/publications-detail/global-surveillance-for-human-infection-with-novel-coronavirus-(2019-ncov)]
- Goldsmith CS, Tatti KM, Ksiazek TG, et al. Ultrastructural characterization of SARS coronavirus. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10(2):320-6. [PMID:15030705]
- Goligher EC, Tomlinson G, Hajage D, et al. Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation for Severe Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome and Posterior Probability of Mortality Benefit in a Post Hoc Bayesian Analysis of a Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2018;320(21):2251-2259. [PMID:30347031]
- Grasselli G, Zangrillo A, Zanella A, et al. Baseline Characteristics and Outcomes of 1591 Patients Infected With SARS-CoV-2 Admitted to ICUs of the Lombardy Region, Italy. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32250385]
- Guan WJ, Ni ZY, Hu Y, et al. Clinical Characteristics of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med. 2020. [PMID:32109013]
- Guérin C, Reignier J, Richard JC, et al. Prone positioning in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(23):2159-68. [PMID:23688302]
- Hager DN, Krishnan JA, Hayden DL, et al. Tidal volume reduction in patients with acute lung injury when plateau pressures are not high. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;172(10):1241-5. [PMID:16081547]
- Harrison C. Coronavirus puts drug repurposing on the fast track [News]. Nature Biotechnology. February 27, 2020. [https://www.nature.com/articles/d41587-020-00003-1]
- He X, Lau EHY, Wu P, et al. Temporal dynamics in viral shedding and transmissibility of COVID-19. Nat Med. 2020;26(5):672-675. [PMID:32296168]
- Healthcare Professional Preparedness Checklist For Transport and Arrival of Patients With Confirmed or Possible COVID-19. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Accessed 26 February 2020. [https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/hcp-personnel-checklist.html]
- Helms J, Kremer S, Merdji H, et al. Neurologic Features in Severe SARS-CoV-2 Infection. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(23):2268-2270. [PMID:32294339]
- Hendren NS, Drazner MH, Bozkurt B, et al. Description and Proposed Management of the Acute COVID-19 Cardiovascular Syndrome. Circulation. 2020;141(23):1903-1914. [PMID:32297796]
- Hoehl S, Rabenau H, Berger A, et al. Evidence of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Returning Travelers from Wuhan, China. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(13):1278-1280. [PMID:32069388]
- Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry Depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and Is Blocked by a Clinically Proven Protease Inhibitor. Cell. 2020;181(2):271-280.e8. [PMID:32142651]
- Holshue ML, DeBolt C, Lindquist S, et al. First Case of 2019 Novel Coronavirus in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2020. [PMID:32004427]
- Horby P, Lim WS, Emberson J, Mafham M, Bell J, et al. Effect of dexamethasone in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: preliminary report. medRxiv. Published online June 22, 2020. :24
- Hu Z, Song C, Xu C, et al. Clinical characteristics of 24 asymptomatic infections with COVID-19 screened among close contacts in Nanjing, China. Sci China Life Sci. 2020. [PMID:32146694]
- Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020. [PMID:31986264]
- Hung IF, Lung KC, Tso EY, et al. Triple combination of interferon beta-1b, lopinavir-ritonavir, and ribavirin in the treatment of patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19: an open-label, randomised, phase 2 trial. Lancet. 2020. [PMID:32401715]
- Infection prevention and control during health care when COVID-19 is suspected. World Health Organization. 19 March 2020. [https://www.who.int/publications-detail/infection-prevention-and-control-d...]
- Interim Guidance for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) for Event Planners. US Centers for Disease Control. March 15, 2020. [https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/large-events/mass-gath...]
- Interim Infection Prevention and Control Recommendations for Patients with Confirmed 2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) or Persons Under Investigation for 2019-nCoV in Healthcare Settings. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Updated February 3, 2020. [https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/infection-control.html]
- Interpretation of Epidemic (Epi) Curves during Ongoing Outbreak Investigations. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. [https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/outbreaks/investigating-outbreaks/epi-curves.html]
- Jüni P, Rothenbühler M, Bobos P, et al. Impact of climate and public health interventions on the COVID-19 pandemic: A prospective cohort study. CMAJ. 2020. [PMID:32385067]
- Kam KQ, Yung CF, Cui L, et al. A Well Infant with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) with High Viral Load. Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2020.
- Kimball A HK, Arons M, et al. Asymptomatic and Presymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infections in Residents of a Long-Term Care Skilled Nursing Facility — King County, Washington, March 2020. MMWR Morbidity and mortality weekly report. 2020;ePub: 27 March 2020.
- Klok FA, Kruip MJHA, van der Meer NJM, et al. Incidence of thrombotic complications in critically ill ICU patients with COVID-19. Thromb Res. 2020;191:145-147. [PMID:32291094]
- Kucirka LM, Lauer SA, Laeyendecker O, et al. Variation in False-Negative Rate of Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction-Based SARS-CoV-2 Tests by Time Since Exposure. Ann Intern Med. 2020. [PMID:32422057]
- Laboratory testing for 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in suspected human cases. World Health Organization. Updated 17 January 2020. [https://www.who.int/publications-detail/laboratory-testing-for-2019-novel-coronavirus-in-suspected-human-cases-20200117]
- Laboratory testing for Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus: Interim guidance. World Health Organization. 2018 [https://www.who.int/csr/disease/coronavirus_infections/mers-laboratory-tes...].
- Lai CC, Shih TP, Ko WC, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): The epidemic and the challenges. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020. [PMID:32081636]
- Lamontagne F, Meade MO, Hébert PC, et al. Higher versus lower blood pressure targets for vasopressor therapy in shock: a multicentre pilot randomized controlled trial. Intensive Care Med. 2016;42(4):542-550. [PMID:26891677]
- Lechien JR, Chiesa-Estomba CM, De Siati DR, et al. Olfactory and gustatory dysfunctions as a clinical presentation of mild-to-moderate forms of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19): a multicenter European study. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2020. [PMID:32253535]
- Lee MK, Choi J, Park B, et al. High flow nasal cannulae oxygen therapy in acute-moderate hypercapnic respiratory failure. Clin Respir J. 2018;12(6):2046-2056. [PMID:29392846]
- Lei J, Li J, Li X, et al. CT Imaging of the 2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Pneumonia. Radiology. 2020;295(1):18. [PMID:32003646]
- Levi M, Thachil J, Iba T, et al. Coagulation abnormalities and thrombosis in patients with COVID-19. Lancet Haematol. 2020;7(6):e438-e440. [PMID:32407672]
- Levin M. Childhood Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome - A New Challenge in the Pandemic. N Engl J Med. 2020. [PMID:32598829]
- Levy MM, Evans LE, Rhodes A. The Surviving Sepsis Campaign Bundle: 2018 update. Intensive Care Med. 2018;44(6):925-928. [PMID:29675566]
- Lewis D. Is the coronavirus airborne? Experts can't agree. Nature. 2020;580(7802):175. [PMID:32242113]
- Li L, Zhang W, Hu Y, et al. Effect of Convalescent Plasma Therapy on Time to Clinical Improvement in Patients With Severe and Life-threatening COVID-19: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32492084]
- Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, et al. Early Transmission Dynamics in Wuhan, China, of Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2020. [PMID:31995857]
- Lim J, Jeon S, Shin HY, et al. Case of the Index Patient Who Caused Tertiary Transmission of COVID-19 Infection in Korea: the Application of Lopinavir/Ritonavir for the Treatment of COVID-19 Infected Pneumonia Monitored by Quantitative RT-PCR. J Korean Med Sci. 2020;35(6):e79. [PMID:32056407]
- Liu W, Zhang Q, Chen J, et al. Detection of Covid-19 in Children in Early January 2020 in Wuhan, China. N Engl J Med. 2020. [PMID:32163697]
- Liu Y, Yan LM, Wan L, et al. Viral dynamics in mild and severe cases of COVID-19. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020. [PMID:32199493]
- Livingston E, Bucher K. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Italy. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32181795]
- Loubani OM, Green RS. A systematic review of extravasation and local tissue injury from administration of vasopressors through peripheral intravenous catheters and central venous catheters. J Crit Care. 2015;30(3):653.e9-17. [PMID:25669592]
- Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, et al. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet. 2020;395(10224):565-574. [PMID:32007145]
- Lu X, Zhang L, Du H, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Children. N Engl J Med. 2020. [PMID:32187458]
- Luo Y, Ou R, Ling Y, et al. [The therapeutic effect of high flow nasal cannula oxygen therapy for the first imported case of Middle East respiratory syndrome to China]. Zhonghua Wei Zhong Bing Ji Jiu Yi Xue. 2015;27(10):841-4. [PMID:27132449]
- Lurie N, Saville M, Hatchett R, et al. Developing Covid-19 Vaccines at Pandemic Speed. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(21):1969-1973. [PMID:32227757]
- Mahase E. Covid-19: Low dose steroid cuts death in ventilated patients by one third, trial finds. BMJ. 2020;369:m2422. [PMID:32546467]
- Mahévas M, Tran VT, Roumier M, et al. Clinical efficacy of hydroxychloroquine in patients with covid-19 pneumonia who require oxygen: observational comparative study using routine care data. BMJ. 2020;369:m1844. [PMID:32409486]
- Mancia G, Rea F, Ludergnani M, et al. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System Blockers and the Risk of Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020. [PMID:32356627]
- Mao L, Jin H, Wang M, et al. Neurologic Manifestations of Hospitalized Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Wuhan, China. JAMA Neurol. 2020. [PMID:32275288]
- Mao R, Qiu Y, He JS, et al. Manifestations and prognosis of gastrointestinal and liver involvement in patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020. [PMID:32405603]
- Marini JJ, Gattinoni L. Management of COVID-19 Respiratory Distress. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32329799]
- Markel H, Lipman HB, Navarro JA, et al. Nonpharmaceutical interventions implemented by US cities during the 1918-1919 influenza pandemic. JAMA. 2007;298(6):644-54. [PMID:17684187]
- McMichael TM CS, Pogosjans S, et al. COVID-19 in a Long-Term Care Facility — King County, Washington, February 27–March 9, 2020. MMWR Morbidity and mortality weekly report. 2020.
- McMichael TM CS, Pogosjans S, et al. COVID-19 in a Long-Term Care Facility — King County, Washington, February 27–March 9, 2020. MMWR Morbidity and mortality weekly report. 2020;69:339-342.
- Mehra MR, Desai SS, Ruschitzka F, et al. Hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine with or without a macrolide for treatment of COVID-19: a multinational registry analysis. Lancet. 2020. [PMID:32450107]
- Messerole E, Peine P, Wittkopp S, et al. The pragmatics of prone positioning. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;165(10):1359-63. [PMID:12016096]
- Middeldorp S, Coppens M, van Haaps TF, et al. Incidence of venous thromboembolism in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. J Thromb Haemost. 2020. [PMID:32369666]
- Myers LC, Parodi SM, Escobar GJ, et al. Characteristics of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 in an Integrated Health Care System in California. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32329797]
- NIH Clinical Trial Shows Remdesivir Accelerates Recovery from Advanced COVID-19 [News]. US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. April 29, 2020. [https://www.niaid.nih.gov/news-events/nih-clinical-trial-shows-remdesivir-...]
- NIH clinical trial of investigational vaccine for COVID-19 begins: study enrolling Seattle-based healthy adult volunteers [News]. March 16, 2020. [https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/nih-clinical-trial-investiga...]
- NIH clinical trial of remdesivir to treat COVID-19 begins [News]. National Institutes of Health. Accessed Febrary 28, 2020. [https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/nih-clinical-trial-remdesivir-treat-covid-19-begins]
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network, Wiedemann HP, Wheeler AP, et al. Comparison of two fluid-management strategies in acute lung injury. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(24):2564-75. [PMID:16714767]
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute PETAL Clinical Trials Network, Moss M, Huang DT, et al. Early Neuromuscular Blockade in the Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2019;380(21):1997-2008. [PMID:31112383]
- Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia Emergency Response Epidemiology Team. [The epidemiological characteristics of an outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus diseases (COVID-19) in China]. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi. 2020;41(2):145-151. [PMID:32064853]
- O'Brien MP, Forleo-Neto E, Musser BJ, et al. Subcutaneous REGEN-COV Antibody Combination to Prevent Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(13):1184-1195. [PMID:34347950]
- Ou X, Hua Y, Liu J, et al. Effect of high-flow nasal cannula oxygen therapy in adults with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. CMAJ. 2017;189(7):E260-E267. [PMID:28246239]
- Pan L, Mu M, Ren HG, et al. Clinical characteristics of COVID-19 patients with digestive symptoms in Hubei, China: a descriptive, cross-sectional, multicenter study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2020;[Epub ahead of print].
- Pan X, Chen D, Xia Y, et al. Asymptomatic cases in a family cluster with SARS-CoV-2 infection. The Lancet Infectious diseases. 2020.
- Pan A, Liu L, Wang C, et al. Association of Public Health Interventions With the Epidemiology of the COVID-19 Outbreak in Wuhan, China. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32275295]
- Pan F, Ye T, Sun P, et al. Time Course of Lung Changes On Chest CT During Recovery From 2019 Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pneumonia. Radiology. 2020. [PMID:32053470]
- Papazian L, Forel JM, Gacouin A, et al. Neuromuscular blockers in early acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2010;363(12):1107-16. [PMID:20843245]
- Park SY, Kim YM, Yi S, et al. Coronavirus Disease Outbreak in Call Center, South Korea. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020;26(8). [PMID:32324530]
- Pham TM, Carpenter JR, Morris TP, et al. Ethnic Differences in the Prevalence of Type 2 Diabetes Diagnoses in the UK: Cross-Sectional Analysis of the Health Improvement Network Primary Care Database. Clin Epidemiol. 2019;11:1081-1088. [PMID:32021464]
- Prescott HC, Angus DC. Enhancing Recovery From Sepsis: A Review. JAMA. 2018;319(1):62-75. [PMID:29297082]
- Price-Haywood EG, Burton J, Fort D, et al. Hospitalization and Mortality among Black Patients and White Patients with Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020. [PMID:32459916]
- Qin C, Zhou L, Hu Z, et al. Dysregulation of immune response in patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China. Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2020.
- Randomised Evaluation of COVID-19 Therapy (RECOVERY). Low-cost dexamethasone reduces death by up to one third in hospitalised patients with severe respiratory complications of COVID-19. 2020. Available at: https://www.recoverytrial.net/news/low-cost-dexamethasone-reduces-death-by-up-to-one-third-in-hospitalised-patients-with-severe-respiratory-complications-of-covid-19. Accessed June 23, 2020.
- Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017;43(3):304-377. [PMID:28101605]
- Richardson S, Hirsch JS, Narasimhan M, et al. Presenting Characteristics, Comorbidities, and Outcomes Among 5700 Patients Hospitalized With COVID-19 in the New York City Area. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32320003]
- Rochwerg B, Alhazzani W, Gibson A, et al. Fluid type and the use of renal replacement therapy in sepsis: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2015;41(9):1561-71. [PMID:25904181]
- Rochwerg B, Alhazzani W, Sindi A, et al. Fluid resuscitation in sepsis: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2014;161(5):347-55. [PMID:25047428]
- Rodrigo C, Leonardi-Bee J, Nguyen-Van-Tam J, et al. Corticosteroids as adjunctive therapy in the treatment of influenza. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;3:CD010406. [PMID:26950335]
- Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Cardona-Ospina JA, Gutiérrez-Ocampo E, et al. Clinical, laboratory and imaging features of COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2020;34:101623. [PMID:32179124]
- Rosenberg ES, Dufort EM, Udo T, et al. Association of Treatment With Hydroxychloroquine or Azithromycin With In-Hospital Mortality in Patients With COVID-19 in New York State. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32392282]
- Russell CD, Millar JE, Baillie JK. Clinical evidence does not support corticosteroid treatment for 2019-nCoV lung injury. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):473-475. [PMID:32043983]
- Sanders JM, Monogue ML, Jodlowski TZ, et al. Pharmacologic Treatments for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Review. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32282022]
- Scavone C, Brusco S, Bertini M, et al. Current pharmacological treatments for COVID-19: What's next? Br J Pharmacol. 2020. [PMID:32329520]
- Schultz MJ, Dunser MW, Dondorp AM, et al. Current challenges in the management of sepsis in ICUs in resource-poor settings and suggestions for the future. Intensive Care Med. 2017;43(5):612-624. [PMID:28349179]
- Sethuraman N, Jeremiah SS, Ryo A. Interpreting Diagnostic Tests for SARS-CoV-2. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32374370]
- Shi H, Han X, Zheng C. Evolution of CT Manifestations in a Patient Recovered from 2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Pneumonia in Wuhan, China. Radiology. 2020;295(1):20. [PMID:32032497]
- Shi H, Han X, Jiang N, et al. Radiological findings from 81 patients with COVID-19 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(4):425-434. [PMID:32105637]
- Spinato G, Fabbris C, Polesel J, et al. Alterations in Smell or Taste in Mildly Symptomatic Outpatients With SARS-CoV-2 Infection. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32320008]
- Stockman LJ, Bellamy R, Garner P. SARS: systematic review of treatment effects. PLoS Med. 2006;3(9):e343. [PMID:16968120]
- Sungnak W, Huang N, Bécavin C, et al. SARS-CoV-2 entry factors are highly expressed in nasal epithelial cells together with innate immune genes. Nat Med. 2020;26(5):681-687. [PMID:32327758]
- Tabata S, Imai K, Kawano S, et al. Clinical characteristics of COVID-19 in 104 people with SARS-CoV-2 infection on the Diamond Princess cruise ship: a retrospective analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020. [PMID:32539988]
- Tang N, Li D, Wang X, et al. Abnormal coagulation parameters are associated with poor prognosis in patients with novel coronavirus pneumonia. J Thromb Haemost. 2020;18(4):844-847. [PMID:32073213]
- Tang W, Cao Z, Han M, et al. Hydroxychloroquine in patients with mainly mild to moderate coronavirus disease 2019: open label, randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2020;369:m1849. [PMID:32409561]
- Thachil J, Tang N, Gando S, et al. ISTH interim guidance on recognition and management of coagulopathy in COVID-19. J Thromb Haemost. 2020;18(5):1023-1026. [PMID:32338827]
- Thanh Le T, Andreadakis Z, Kumar A, et al. The COVID-19 vaccine development landscape. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2020;19(5):305-306. [PMID:32273591]
- The Lancet Editors . Expression of concern: Hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine with or without a macrolide for treatment of COVID-19: a multinational registry analysis. Lancet. 2020. [PMID:32504543]
- Tian S, Hu N, Lou J, et al. Characteristics of COVID-19 infection in Beijing. J Infect. 2020. [PMID:32112886]
- To KK, Tsang OT, Leung WS, et al. Temporal profiles of viral load in posterior oropharyngeal saliva samples and serum antibody responses during infection by SARS-CoV-2: an observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020. [PMID:32213337]
- Tobin MJ. Basing Respiratory Management of COVID-19 on Physiological Principles. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2020;201(11):1319-1320. [PMID:32281885]
- Torjesen I. Covid-19: Hydroxychloroquine does not benefit hospitalised patients, UK trial finds. BMJ. 2020;369:m2263. [PMID:32513810]
- Tracking Every Coronavirus Case in the U.S.: Full Map. New York Times. [https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/us/coronavirus-us-cases.html]
- Treon SP, Castillo J, Skarbnik AP, et al. The BTK-inhibitor ibrutinib may protect against pulmonary injury in COVID-19 infected patients. Blood. 2020. [PMID:32302379]
- Verdoni L, Mazza A, Gervasoni A, et al. An outbreak of severe Kawasaki-like disease at the Italian epicentre of the SARS-CoV-2 epidemic: an observational cohort study. Lancet. 2020. [PMID:32410760]
- Wadhera RK, Wadhera P, Gaba P, et al. Variation in COVID-19 Hospitalizations and Deaths Across New York City Boroughs. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32347898]
- Wang Y, Liu Y, Liu L, Wang X, Luo N, Ling L. Clinical outcome of 55 asymptomatic cases at the time of hospital admission infected with SARS-Coronavirus-2 in Shenzhen, China. The Journal of infectious diseases. 2020.
- Wang C, Li W, Drabek D, et al. A human monoclonal antibody blocking SARS-CoV-2 infection. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):2251. [PMID:32366817]
- Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, et al. Clinical Characteristics of 138 Hospitalized Patients With 2019 Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32031570]
- Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, et al. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res. 2020;30(3):269-271. [PMID:32020029]
- Wang W, Xu Y, Gao R, et al. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Different Types of Clinical Specimens. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32159775]
- Wang Y, Zhang D, Du G, et al. Remdesivir in adults with severe COVID-19: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial. Lancet. 2020;395(10236):1569-1578. [PMID:32423584]
- Wang Y, Dong C, Hu Y, et al. Temporal Changes of CT Findings in 90 Patients with COVID-19 Pneumonia: A Longitudinal Study. Radiology. 2020. [PMID:32191587]
- Wei M, Yuan J, Liu Y, et al. Novel Coronavirus Infection in Hospitalized Infants Under 1 Year of Age in China. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32058570]
- Wei WE, Li Z, Chiew CJ, et al. Presymptomatic Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 - Singapore, January 23-March 16, 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69(14):411-415. [PMID:32271722]
- Whittaker E, Bamford A, Kenny J, et al. Clinical Characteristics of 58 Children With a Pediatric Inflammatory Multisystem Syndrome Temporally Associated With SARS-CoV-2. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32511692]
- Williams E, Bond K, Zhang B, et al. Saliva as a non-invasive specimen for detection of SARS-CoV-2. J Clin Microbiol. 2020. [PMID:32317257]
- Williamson BN, Feldmann F, Schwarz B, et al. Clinical benefit of remdesivir in rhesus macaques infected with SARS-CoV-2. Nature. 2020. [PMID:32516797]
- Writing Group for the Alveolar Recruitment for Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Trial (ART) Investigators, Cavalcanti AB, Suzumura ÉA, et al. Effect of Lung Recruitment and Titrated Positive End-Expiratory Pressure (PEEP) vs Low PEEP on Mortality in Patients With Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2017;318(14):1335-1345. [PMID:28973363]
- Wu Y, Guo C, Tang L, et al. Prolonged presence of SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA in faecal samples. The Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology. 2020.
- Wu C, Chen X, Cai Y, et al. Risk Factors Associated With Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome and Death in Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA Intern Med. 2020. [PMID:32167524]
- Wu Z, McGoogan JM. Characteristics of and Important Lessons From the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Outbreak in China: Summary of a Report of 72 314 Cases From the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32091533]
- Wölfel R, Corman VM, Guggemos W, et al. Virological assessment of hospitalized patients with COVID-2019. Nature. 2020;581(7809):465-469. [PMID:32235945]
- Xie X, Zhong Z, Zhao W, et al. Chest CT for Typical 2019-nCoV Pneumonia: Relationship to Negative RT-PCR Testing. Radiology. 2020. [PMID:32049601]
- Xu XW, Wu XX, Jiang XG, et al. Clinical findings in a group of patients infected with the 2019 novel coronavirus (SARS-Cov-2) outside of Wuhan, China: retrospective case series. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 2020;368:m606.
- Xu X, Yu C, Qu J, et al. Imaging and clinical features of patients with 2019 novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2020;47(5):1275-1280. [PMID:32107577]
- Xu Z, Shi L, Wang Y, et al. Pathological findings of COVID-19 associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(4):420-422. [PMID:32085846]
- Yang W, Cao Q, Qin L, et al. Clinical characteristics and imaging manifestations of the 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19):A multi-center study in Wenzhou city, Zhejiang, China. J Infect. 2020;80(4):388-393. [PMID:32112884]
- Yang X, Yu Y, Xu J, et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a single-centered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respir Med. 2020. [PMID:32105632]
- Young BE, Ong SWX, Kalimuddin S, et al. Epidemiologic Features and Clinical Course of Patients Infected With SARS-CoV-2 in Singapore. JAMA. 2020. [PMID:32125362]
- Zaki AM, van Boheemen S, Bestebroer TM, et al. Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia. N Engl J Med. 2012;367(19):1814-20. [PMID:23075143]
- Zeng L, Xia S, Yuan W, et al. Neonatal early-onset infection with SARS-CoV-2 in 33 neonates born to mothers with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China. JAMA Pediatr. Published online March 26, 2020.
- Zhang C, Shi L, Wang FS. Liver injury in COVID-19: management and challenges. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020. [PMID:32145190]
- Zhang L, Liu Y. Potential Interventions for Novel Coronavirus in China: A Systematic Review. J Med Virol. 2020. [PMID:32052466]
- Zhang W, Du RH, Li B, et al. Molecular and serological investigation of 2019-nCoV infected patients: implication of multiple shedding routes. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020;9(1):386-389. [PMID:32065057]
- Zhao J, Yuan Q, Wang H, et al. Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in patients of novel coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis. Published online March 28, 2020.
- Zhao J, Yuan Q, Wang H, et al. Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in patients of novel coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis. 2020. [PMID:32221519]
- Zhao W, Zhong Z, Xie X, et al. Relation Between Chest CT Findings and Clinical Conditions of Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Pneumonia: A Multicenter Study. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2020. [PMID:32125873]
- Zhong NS, Zheng BJ, Li YM, et al. Epidemiology and cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Guangdong, People's Republic of China, in February, 2003. Lancet. 2003;362(9393):1353-8. [PMID:14585636]
- Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet. 2020;395(10229):1054-1062. [PMID:32171076]
- Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, et al. A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(8):727-733. [PMID:31978945]
- Zou L, Ruan F, Huang M, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Viral Load in Upper Respiratory Specimens of Infected Patients. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(12):1177-1179. [PMID:32074444]
- Zou X, Chen K, Zou J, et al. Single-cell RNA-seq data analysis on the receptor ACE2 expression reveals the potential risk of different human organs vulnerable to 2019-nCoV infection. Front Med. 2020;14(2):185-192. [PMID:32170560]
- qSARS-CoV-2 IgG/IgM Rapid Test Letter of Authorization. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. [https://www.fda.gov/media/136622/download]
- van Doremalen N, Bushmaker T, Morris DH, et al. Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(16):1564-1567. [PMID:32182409]